In the decades since the commercialization of lithium-ion batteries in the 1990s, they have achieved great success in powering commercial electronics and electric vehicles. However, the low theoretical capacity (~372 mAh/g) and volumetric capacity (~735 mAh/cm3) of the anode limits the improvements in energy density that lithium-ion batteries can achieve with conventional graphite anodes. To meet the growing demand for lithium secondary batteries, new battery technologies beyond conventional Li-ion cells are needed.
Li metal has the highest theoretical capacity (~3860 mAh/g) and lowest electrochemical potential (-3.04 V vs. hydrogen reference electrode) as well as the lowest density (0.53 g/cm3). These properties make lithium metal anodes the most promising material for high capacity and power per unit weight and unit volume.